5.20 Evaluate the potential for using cloned transgenic animals, for example to produce commercial quantities of human antibodies or organs for transplantation

·         Animals that are clone are genetically identical and transgenic/ DNA commercial antibodies.

·         Use restriction enzyme to cut the gene of human (antibody production).

·         In the egg is to knock out the cow antibody reproduction gene and then add the human gene.

·         Cow cell will develop by mitosis to form the clone of cells an embryo which transferred to the serrated mother which will genetically produce calves.

·         The antibodies are collected in the milk. Human anybody: large commercial scale.

5.19 Describe the stages in the production of cloned mammals involving the introduction of a diploid nucleus from a mature cell into an enucleated egg cell, illustrated by Dolly the sheep

·         Dolly is the clone and it’s identical.

·         This is clone by removing the cell (diploid cell). Nucleus contains all genetic information.

·         Different animals treated to egg, tends to divide. Take the nucleus so, its enucleated.

·         We take the cells and fuse them together and by mitosis we get the blastula (embryonic sheep we start).

·         Then embryo put in the serrated mother and gives a birth sheep which is young sheep ‘Dolly’. Pair is clone even though their age is different.

5.18 Understand how micropropagation can be used to produce commercial quantities of identical plants (clones) with desirable characteristics

·         Plant has characteristic, commercial desired.

·         Sexual reproduction which lead to variation: less of qualities.

·         Cloning technique: get many plant of same quality and product is the same.

·         The technique is micro propagation.

·         This is converted in 5.17 notes.

5.17 Describe the process of micro propagation (tissue culture) in which small pieces of plants (explants) are grown in vitro using nutrient media

·         Micro propagation is cloning.

·         We take the tissue from root and shoot. Aseptic condition.

·         We cut the tissue in many small parts (both roots and shoots).

·         Then put it in the nutrient agar minerals which will have rooting compounds and plant hormones.

·         The end it would be small clone and grow on (clone genetically identical).

5.16 Recall that the term ‘transgenic’ means the transfer of genetic material from one species to a different species

·         5.13 transgenic is bacterial DNA that has plasma inside.

·         Human insulin gene has a switch.

·         5.15 maize DNA that transferred the bacterial into the cell to be toxin.

·         This helps to kill the corkborer.

·         These are the 2 example of transgenic.

5.15 Evaluate the potential for using genetically modified plants to improve food production (illustrated by plants with improved resistance to pests)

·         Maize- damage by larvae Europe corkborer: 28% less of crop yield.

·         Bacterial gene when switch on is bacterial toxin known to kill the corkborer larvae.

·         Restriction enzyme to the bacterial gene and chop the gene out for the toxin.

·         This has to be transferred to the cell of the maize plant. The ‘gene gun’ involves taking tiny particle of gold to fire out the plant cell.

·         The plant cell gets the gene when switch on is toxin and kill the larvae which gives the maize resistance to corkborer.

5.14 Understand that large amounts of human insulin can be manufactured from genetically modified bacteria that are grown in a fermenter

·         Human DNA is insulin gene.

·         Culture of the bacteria is the large population will be injected into the ferment.

·         To control the temperature, pH and the nutrients. The bacteria manufacture the protein insulin.

·         Amino acid would be important.

·         The product is purification- downstream processing.

5.12 Describe the use of restriction enzymes to cut DNA at specific sites and ligase enzymes to join pieces of DNA together

·         Restriction enzyme is able to cut the DNA.

·         Cut the DNA at a particular position and it will be restriction enzyme.

·         DNA ligase able to join the DNA together.

·         The restriction cuts.

·         The DNA ligase joins.

5.11 Understand that animals with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding

·         Desired->> milk yield. 50ml for some cows, 150ml for some cows but most cows produce 100 ml of milk.

·         Farmer collects all milk but leave the 150ml for breeding cows.

·         New generation produce 100ml, 150ml and 200ml of milks.

·         Cows produce high yield become breeding population so, they are selected.

·         Next generation produce 150ml, 200mll and 250ml. develop desired characteristic by selective breeding which is milk yield=genetic genes.

5.10 Understand that plants with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding

·         Some plants have 6 grains per stem, others have 8 grains per stem and other still has 10 grains per stem.

·         Farmer decision is to harvest this grain (6 and 8 grains per stem) but the 10 grains are for planting.

·         Next generation of rice it would increase to 8, 10, 12 grains per stem and gravest (8 and 10 grains) but the 12 grains are for selective planting and breeding.

·         The rice gradually increases so, the yield increase.

·         This is example of selective breeding.

5.9 Explain the methods which are used to farm large numbers of fish to provide a source of protein, including maintenance of water quality, control of intraspecific and interspecific predation, control of disease, removal of waste products, quality and frequency of feeding and the use of selective breeding

·         Fish farming-low fat and high protein.

·         They are efficient of turning there nutrients into fish mass.

·         Plus side fish farming allowed us to control quality of water-clean, we can control predators, we can reduce pests and another form of diseases.

·         By controlling these factors we contributed to an increase of a yield of fish.

·         High density of fish than the possibility is the transmitting use anti-biotic for human health make pests so, farmer use pesticides and it’s also concerned among human.

5.8 Interpret and label a diagram of an industrial fermenter and explain the need to provide suitable conditions in the fermenter, including aseptic precautions, nutrients, optimum temperature and pH, oxygenation and agitation, for the growth of microorganisms

·         In between the 2 jacket there is water (cooling jacket) which cools down the reaction. Optimum conduction.

·         An inlet is where the steam going in. heating plate to raise the temperature in the tank (heater).

·         The combination of cooling jacket and heater is to get the optimum condition for the fermentation. A pipe to insert nutrients for microorganism.

·          There would be temperature probe. The microorganism would go in the tank and there would be pH probe.

·         We have a method to clean the tank, method to introduce microorganism, a tap to introduce nutrients and a probe f to tell the pH temperature, heater for the jacket. There would be stirring to mix the mixture. ‘Optimum growth condition’. The drained product which is downstream processing purification.

5.7 Understand the role of bacteria (Lactobacillus) in the production of yoghurt

• Cow->>milk production->> TB ( The process of pasteurization.
• This heat treatment kills of any pathogens which are in the milk.
• The milk sugar are converted into lactic acid which is brought about by 45-46^oc and to add the lactobacillus. 
•  Lactobacillus produces the enzymes and lactic acidic is lower pH which is acidic and become milk proteins.
• Solidify and become yoghurt.

5.5 Understand the role of yeast in the production of beer

·         Beer is ethanol and alcohol molecules.

·         Glucose-> > ethanol + carbon dioxide which this is the form of anaerobic respiration.

·         The microorganism that does this is yeast and yeast is able to supply the enzymes to bring about this convention. Hops are added to change the flavor.

·         Glucose come from starch, starch is converted to maltose and maltose to glucose.

·         This is the process of sugar

5.4 understand the reasons for pest control and the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides and biological control with crop plants

• Monoculture - field of wheats : they tend to be accessible of pests which crop as there own food sources.
• The productivity is food and financial. The pesticides -chemicals which kill pests.

Advantages	Disadvantages
Chemicals obtain	Toxic – kill other plants and harm humans
Easy to apply not to different to farm	Bio accumulation
Very effective	Resistance

• The moth eat away the cactus.
• This is called "Biological control"

Advantages	Disadvantages
No toxic chemical involve	Not 100% effective
Less impact on wildlife	Difficult to control
	Difficult to match the predator to prey

5.3 understand the use of fertiliser to increase crop yield

• Fertilisers are nitrate and phosphate.
• Nitrate are protein and phosphate are DNA membrane.
• Fertilisers can be divided to 2 group which is organic and artificial fertilisers.
• Organic are animal waste; cow facades; decomposition. Give crops land nitrate and phosphate.
• Artificial fertilisers are chemical; potassium nitrate and ammonia nitrate would be solution and at the end the result would be nitrate and phosphate like the organic.

5.2 Understand the effects on crop yield of increased carbon dioxide and increased temperature in glasshouses

• Rate of photosynthesis =CO2 + H2O----> glucose + oxygen
• Increasing concentration of CO2 is substrate.
• Increasing temperature we get it will increase the rate of reactions.
• The optimum is at the peak of the relationship between the optimum temperature and the rate of reactions.
• Increasing temperature -avoiding first damage and constant temperature.

5.1 Describe how glasshouses and polythene tunnels can be used to increase the yield of certain crops

• Solar radiation - source of energy of light. Glasehouses which is all surfaces is glass and allowed light to pass through.
• Light absorb by the surfaces inside the glass house which is soil.
• The surfaces would re emitted as heat, heats warm the air.
• The warm air is kinetic energy and the temperature increases.
• The warm air would be trap.

Hormones

Hormones	Endocrine gland	Target time	Effect
ADH	Brain	Heart	Controls water content in blood
Adrenaline	Adrenal gland	Uterus	Helps the body
Oestrogen	Ovary	Uterus	Developed of female sexual
Progesterone	testis	Testis	The lining of uterus
Testosterone	Pancreas	Liver	Developed the male sexual
Insulin	pancreas	Liver	Decrease the glucose in body

Hormones	nerves
fast	Slow
Short	Lasting

2.89 Understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: ADH, adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen

• ADH: is made by hypothalmus but secreted by posterior lobe of pituitary gland. Promotes water conservation the kidneys.
• Insulin: causes cells to take up glucose and store it as glycogen. Lowers blood glucose levels and secreted by the pancreas.
• Adrenaline: fight or flight response, increase heart rate and constricted blood vessels.
• Testosterone: secreted in the testes of the make and the ovary of the female. The small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands. This is the male sex and an anabolic steriod.
• Progesterone: is a steroid hormone that's stimulates the preparation of the uterus for pregancy and maintains the uterus in the event of fertization. It is maintaining pregnancy and preventing further ovulation.
• Oestrogen: It controls the female sex and developeand promote the groeth of female at the puberty, stimuli egg (ovum) production and in mammals it prepare the lining of the uterus for pregnancy.

2.88 the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to sweating vasoconstriction and vasodilation

• The skin regulates body temperature to protect against hyperthermia and hypothermia.
•  Skin protects from the invasion of noxious substances, UV light, heat and micro-organisms.
• The skin is also the most extensive sensory organ of the body for detection of tactile, thermal and painful stimuli.
• The eccrine sweat glands produces sweats.
•  The food stimulates heat inside the body which causes our brain to start off the body's normal cooling manner
• The fluid is emitted  our pores in the skin which is sweats.
  

2.87 understand the function of the eye in focusing near and distant objects, and in responding to changes in light intensity

• The light enters the eye passes through the cornea.Then the light cross the watery compartment and passes through the pupil and from there it enters the adjustable lens.
• The transparent structure containing highly crystallines proteins.
• The lens refract the light and sent the message to the brain.
• The lens has to adjust when looking at the image which is when you look at a distance objects.
• When you look at up close objects the lens has to adjust to he scatter light rays.

2.86 the structure and function of the eye as a receptor

• The eye would get light from the objects which is by the sensory nerves and then the message would be sent to the coordinator and then the motor nerves would sent the message to the effector for us to decide about the object by the responses from the muscle.
• The cornea is the curve band of strong, clear tissue on the surface of the eye, the cornea focuses light onto the retina.
• The epithelium provides a thin protective layer for the cornea and heals very quickly when disturbed.
• The iris : The coloured part of the eye is actually a muscle that controls the size of the pupil.
•  The pupil: The black circular area in the middle of the eye controls the amount of light reaching the retina.
• The retina: A membrane on the inner wall of the eye, similar to the film in a camera, the retina changes light into images that are transferred to the brain via the optic nerve.
• Sclera: The outer white coat of the eye, the scelera also provides protection.
• Lens: Is behind the pupil changes shape to allow the eye to focus. As a result of aging, the natural lens hardens, resulting in presbyopia, the loss of reading vision.

2.85 Reflex Arcs

• Reflex arcs are the sensory neuron connects to motor neurons through interneurons in the central nervous system
• The interneuron is in the spinal cord.
• The connection between the sensory neuron carrying the message from the receptor and the motor neuron is that it's carry the message to the effector.
• To make the interneurons of the central nervous system work
• These connection is the right connection or in another words "Integration".

2.84 stimulation of receptors in the sense organs sends electrical impulses along nerves into and out of the central nervous system, resulting in rapid responses

• The messages that nerves carry are called "nerve impilses". They are electrical signals.
• They pass very quickly along the axon of the neuron which axon is the part of the cell that are strectched out.
• Impulses travels along the axon like a train along a track and each one would be seperate from thr nexy and travels along after one another. Some axon has fatty sheath around them which insulates the axon and makes the impulses travel faster .
• People would get diseases due to the lose of the use of their muscles because the messages never reach them.
• This is cause by the multiple sclerosis the fatty sheath that breaks down and make the impulses slow down or may even stop.

2.83 central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord and is linked to sense organs by nerves

• The main parts of the nervous system are the brain and the spinal cord.
• The spinal cord is linked to sense organ by nerves due to the central nervous system.
• The sense organs are our receptors and they sent messages to the central nervous system.
• Telling the central nervous system what's happening.
• These messages are sent along the sensory neurones.

receptor and  then central nerve system and then muscle

2.82 Communication

• We have a nerve eg. motor nerve which embed in the spine and this end would connect to the effector most likely would be muslce.
• From the cell body to the synaptic knob. Single cell is shown in orange.
• The effect is to increase the nerve conduction. The endocsic system produces a chemical call hormones.
• The hormones is secreted to the blood.
• The target tissue will have an effect and it can bring multiple effect.

Nerve - fast and hormones - really slow.

2.77b Thermoregulation

• Negative feedback loop control and maintaining constant conditions.
• 37/38 degree celsius is human body temperature.
• Hypothalamus is the region of the brain, stimuli is the temperature of the body which is blood.
• The effect would be the skim. 
• The responses would be the decreasing or increasing of the body temperature.

2.77a Thermoregulation

• Homeo mean same, ostasis mean conditions and thermic mean temperature.
• Homeothermal is thermoregulation.
• Maximum rate of reaction would be on the temperature.
• This is called the optimum temperature.
• It would be the same temperature for the mammal.

2.76 Sensitivity

• Sensitivity is the sense that response to the changes of the environment.
• Types of changes in the environment are light, temperature, pressure and chemical.
• In order to do the changes the organisms must take place in the receptor.
• The response recieved the sense by the effector.
• The response shows that the organisms has survive from the effector.