2.7 Test Starch and Glucose

Test For Glucose - C6H12O6

1. put the glucose powder in the test tube with water and dissolve it.
2. add the Benedict's reagent 'blue'. Test tube would become blue colour.
3. place the test tube in he water bath (60-70c) and put it for 2/3 mins.
4. take the test tube out and the result you get is orange colour and it will soon become green.

Test For Starch

1. white powder into the spotting tiles and add iodine solution (brown colour).
2. the change is from brown colour to very dark blue back colour. ( positive test).

2.6 Biological Molecules

• Carbohydrates - sugars and large molecules that sugar combine to is starch (plants) and glycogen (animals).
• Proteins - amino acids , amino acids join together to form actual proteins.
• Lipids - has 2 groups-glycerol and atty acids and they both join together to form lipids.

2.5 Elements in biological molecules

• Carbohydrates- CHO are present.
• Protein - CHON are present.
• Lipid-CHO are present.
• Lipid and Carbohydrates has the same structure 'CHO'
• Carbohydrates includes sugar and large molecules is ploysacchrides (starch). Proteins are amino acids which includes nitrogen. Lipids has 2 groups first one is fats from the animals and the other group is oils from the plants.

2.4 Plant cell and Animal cell

• Both cells have nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane.
• The different is the shape the plant shape is more regular.
• The plant cell has cell vacuole.
• Plant cell store starch but animal cell store glycogen.

2.3 Cell Functions

typical animal cell:

Cell membrane	Controls which substances can enter and leave the cell.
Nucleus	Contains genetic material that controls the function of the cell.
Cytoplasm	Contains many organelles in which all cell process take place.
Mitochondria	Cell organelle Site of aerobic respiration Release of energy for cell processes

PLant cell:

Cell membrane	Controls which substances can enter and leave the cell.
Nucleus	Contains genetic material that controls the function of the cell.
Cytoplasm	Contains many organelles in which all cell process take place.
Mitochondria	Cell organelle Site of aerobic respiration Release of energy for cell processes
Vacuole	Storage region for amino acids and sugars
Chloroplast	Site of photosynthesis
Cell wall	Provides support for plant cell and the plant tissues.

2.2 Cell Structure

• Cell has a cell membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm.
• The first cell shows the animal cells and the second cell is the plant cell.

2.1 Organisation

·         What make the plant an organism is that they are individual species that can do reproduction. The function is the ‘Transport’ of water which is in the transpiration. Big functions are associated with system which is reproduction and photosynthesis included need to gather water, light and carbon dioxide.

·         System can be defined as organs, tissue; cell that is working together for one overall purpose is photosynthesis. The diagram is an organ of the leaf. The overall function of the leave is photosynthesis, gas exchange and transpiration.

·         The tissues are cells of the same kind due to the same shape and they do the same function.

Organs	Functions
Phloem	Cells transport ‘sap’
Xylem	Transport water and minerals
Paliscide	Main tissue involve photosynthesis
mesophyll	The space for transpiration and photosynthesis

·         Palisade cell: the chloroplast, cell membrane, cell wall the cytoplasm are called organelles; work together to produce the functioning cell. The organization is based on cell, tissue, organs, system and organism.

2.75 Urine

• The brain influencing the functioning of the 2 kidneys and how the 2 kidneys are filtering are blood.
• The molecule which are remove, which come down the ureter collect in the bladder.
• Together this form what we know as urine.
• Urine contain salts, water and urea. The salts and water effects the composition of tissue fluid which is called osmoregulation. 
• The removal of urea is part of the process of the excretion of metabolic waste. The varies is depends up on the conditions that the person is operating.

2.74 ADH

• ADH: Anti-diuretic hormones, ADH produces in the region of the brain known as the hypothalamus.
• The effect of the ADH is to control and altered the composition of water which is in the blood, which has the ability to make the blood more or less concentration.
• The tissue fluid is isotonic of the cell ( role of ADH ).
• The effect of ADH allow more water to come out of the collecting duct. Collecting duct is where water selectively re-absorption of water going into the blood by applying the hormones ADH.
• ADH makes collecting duct walls more purest so, that more water can escape from the collecting duct.This water goes back into the blood. The urine would become more concentration and lower volume.

2.73 Glucose re-absorption

• The selection is glucose and the re-absorption would be from the glomerular filtrate back to the blood.
• Water is remove back into the blood from the collecting duct.
• At the end of the nephron, the urine is normally does not contain glucose.
• Glucose is in the fluid, that the proximal convoluted tubule (first twisted tube) glucose is remove is taken back to the blood.

2.72 Water re-absorption

• The filtrate passes along the tubule and it reaches the collecting duct.
• The water removes from the filtrate.
• The water turn back to the blood vessels.
• Water is selected and turn to re-absorption into blood.
• Occurs in the collecting duct.

2.71 Ultrafiltration

• Nephron- Filtration of blood-clean blood and urine.
• This urine compose of salts, water and urea ( nitrogen waste). Bowman's capsule is where the filtration begins.
• Filtration of blood: blood arriving in kidney, in the nephron in this blood vessel known as the "Afferent arteriole". It's high pressure, it's start to branch and be come very very much smaller.
• Wide blood vessel diameter and Small blood vessel diameter. High pressures forces the plasma (all components dissolve in water) out of the blood vessels into the bowman's capsule.
• Change the plasma to be called :filtrate" and its takes place in the glomerula so its called the :Glomerula Filtrate".

2.70 Nephron Structure

• Nephron is the function of the kidney which does the filtration and controlling of blood.
• Renal artery take the blood to the kidney. Urine comes down by the ureter.
• The lighter of the outer is called cortex, the inside called the medulla and the lighter colour space is the pelvic region.
• The reason of the different colours is that the kidney is made up of millions of tubular structures.
• The tubes start on the edge of the medulla and moves directly upwards through the medulla out in the cortex and whines a bit before dipping down into the medulla again and back up and another short twisting section before coming to a dead end (Bowman's capsule).

2.69 Urinary system

• The urinary system we have 2 kidney the right one and the left one. Each with it's own separate blood supply.
• Carrying out the process of excretion and filtration osmoregulation.
• From each kidney there is a tube that lead to the bladder this is called the ureter.
• The ureter carry urine from the kidney to the bladder.
• The urine is conducted to the outside of the body to be excreted down the structure called urethra which either travels down the vagina or down through the penis.

*Why is the urine is outside not inside?

2.68b Osmoregulation

• The fluid which is surround these cells are isotonic.
• The amount of water going into these cells are equal and remain the same size.
• In the tissues it will be concentrated.
• It would be diluted and be Hypotonic.
• Through our kidney it would be water and salt.

* Why does it excreted salt and water if it's go through the kidnet already?

2.68a Excretion

• Excretion in kidney. The molecule of urea.
• Urea contains nitrogen which is toxic to the body and cannot be stored.
• Amino acids are normally use for growth but the extra amino acids is excess must be remove there toxic.
• The blood serculated to the liver and the amino acids are converted around whihc is called urea.
• The kidney will filter the urea from the blood.

*Why does the kidney need to be filter?

2.67b Human organs of Excretion

•  Lungs would be waste from respiration is carbon dioxide.
• The kidney is responsoble for the excretion of excess water, molecule urea which is nitrogen waste from amino acids and salt.
• The skin would give out water, salt and urea. 
• Salt and water is from sweat.
• 3 organs of excretions are lungs, kidney and skin.

*Why is it only lungs that givesut CO2?

2.67a Excretion in Plants

• The process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide and water which gives off the gas is oxygen.
• The release of metoballic waste.
• Respiration is C6H12O6 +O2 which enzym is needed to make this process work.
• This would form ATP.
• The waste process is called Excretion.

* What does the ATP stand for?

3.34 Causes of mutation

• The mutation is the change in the base sequence.
• There are 2 examples of what cause the changes.
• First example is radiation, x-rays which is UV-B rays would cause diseases which is skin cancers.
• Second is chemicals tars which cause cancers.
• Chemical which cause mutations are called mutagens which cause cancers and they would be called "carcinogen".

3.33 Antibiotic resistance

• Staphylococcus aureus is skin infection and lung infection.
• People could use methecilline (antibiotic). Susceptible is kill by methecilline which is MSSA.
• Random mutation is when the antibiotic apply but the bacteria did not die.
• We would use resistance which is MRSA.
• It would increase more bacteria survives and its would be common.

3.32 Types of mutation

• The process of mutation produce new alleles.
• The impact of the new alleles is benificial,harmful and neutral (no effect).
• Benificial e.g. is enzyme.
• Harmful e.g. is non-functional enzyme.
• Neutral e.g. is environmental change.

3.31 Evolution

• The evolution is the change of  the form of organisms and the change of frequency (how many) of alleles.
• Natural selection is the mechanism of evolution.
• There are 2 features. Random mutation which produces MRSA.
• Another feature is non-random selection due to the anti-biotic to surve MRSA and MSSA is select and kill.
• These two processes are natural selection process.

3.30 Mutations

• The form of the gene is called " Allele".
• The order of the chai is change bewteen the 2 diagram. So, it's different kind of proteins.
• Different effect on the phenotype.
• This process is called "Mutation".
• The changes in the base sequence of the chain.

3.29 Species Variation

• Variation is the differences that we could see in the phenotype and we could measure the differences.
• The individual phenotype is their genotype and environment. Variation of the population is there variation in genotype and variation in environment.
• The variation in population or species is the environmental variation.
• Example: home language.
• There are 3 scenarios.

 

3.21b Genetic Probabilities

3.21a Genetic Probabilities

3.20b Pedigree 2

3.20a Pedigree diagrams

3.18c Codominance

3.19b F1xF1 Cross

• The parents is red petal cross with white petal. We will carry out and F1 cross and this involve reproduction between F1 parents and F1 parents.
• We begin by writing the phenotype is red petal cross another red petal.
• Genotype combination of allele. One would be carrying R and another one would be carrying r.
• Cell would go under process meiosis. Chromosomes number is half and allele is separate.
• Genotype F2 RR:2Rr:rr
• Phenotype F2 2 red: white   3 red: 1 white <--- prediction ratio
• Monohybrid ratio F2 3:1 3 red : 1 white

3.19a P1xP1 Cross

Individual gene = 2 alleles

1.  Cross homozygous red petal plant x white petal plant.
2. Allele key R-red r-white R>r
3. Parental phenotype red petal plant x white petal plant
4. Parental Genotype is homologous pair of chromosomes RR x rr
5. This process is meiosis and production of gametes
6. Random fertilisation

	r	r
R	Rr	Rr
R	Rr	Rr

offspring genotype Rr
offspring phenotype all red F1=all Rr  (Heterozygous)

3.18b Genotypes

• The appearance is control by the Genotype and the Genotype is a combination of 2 alleles.

Allele key: R-red, r-white

Allele combination	Genotype	Phenotype
Homozygous (same allele)	RR	Red
	rr	White
Heterozygous (different allele)	Rr	Red

(dominant of R)
(r-recessive)

3.18a Phenotypes

• Phenotype are what we can see. If we take a red petal plant and reproduce with another red petal plant. The offspring when germinate and growing flower to produce red petals.
• The phenotype is red.
• If we take white petal plant and reproduce with another white petal plan. The offspring germinate and growing flower to produce white petals
• If we take the white petal plant and cross section with the red petal plant and the it would be red.
• We would say that the red is dominant and the white is recessive..

Board notes

3.2 Fertilisation

• Process begun with adult male and adult female. The cell which made up an adult whether is male or female.
• These cells has a complete chromosomes. One is diploid which is from the adult male and contain 2n=42 chromosomes for human. These cell divide in a testy.
• Type division is meiosis. Female the cell meiosis would contain haploid.
• They both join/fuse together and the process is fertilisation. New cell known as a zygote.
• The process cell division is mitosis eg. one cell will divide to 2 cell and both contain 46 chromosomes. Efficient cell structure would call embryo.

3.10 Menstrual Cycle

• Oestrogen and progesterone are both example of hormones.
• Hormones is produce in a structure of endocrine gland, hormones will travel through the blood to it target which is tissues. Target tissues hormones will effect.
• The ovary produces oestrogen which has effect of the thickness and effect number 2. is the effect to the brain which causes the ovary to release an egg.
• Produces progesterone.
• The end of the cycle is menstrual period.

3.9b Female Reproductive System

Structure	Function
Ovary	Meiosis occurring and production of egg
Oviducts	Carry egg to uterus
Uterus	Wall of uterus made of muscle. Stretch when pregnancy and contract when birth
Lining of uterus	Fertilize the egg to the embryo and the child are develop of placenta
Uterus space	Place where embryo develop to unborn child
Cervix	Entrance to the uterus
vagina	Collect sperm cells, allow them to the cervix and the uterus